Organizational Memory: Why Organizations Forget What They Learn

Organizational memory can fail even after a company solves a problem, documents the lesson, and promises not to repeat it. The people who understood what happened have moved on. The decision rationale has been reduced to a few vague bullet points. A new leadership team sees the symptoms but not the history. What the organization once knew has become difficult to find, difficult to trust, or impossible to apply.

The organization did learn. It simply failed to remember.

This is not mainly a documentation problem. It is a system-design problem. The structures, incentives, information flows, relationships, technologies, and decision routines of an organization determine what survives, what disappears, what becomes distorted, and what returns at the moment it is needed.

What is organizational memory?

Organizational memory is the accumulated knowledge, experience, reasoning, routines, relationships, and interpretations that allow an organization to use its past when making present decisions. It includes what people remember, but it is not limited to individual recollection. It also lives in processes, role structures, technologies, stories, governance, incentives, archives, informal networks, and the assumptions embedded in everyday work.

The foundational organizational-memory literature describes memory through processes such as acquiring, retaining, and retrieving information.^[1] That distinction matters because information can be acquired without being retained, retained without being retrievable, and retrieved without changing what anyone does.

Organizational memory is more than documentation

A document is an artifact. Memory is a capability. A company may own thousands of reports while remaining unable to answer basic questions:

• Why was this strategic decision made?
• Which assumptions were considered credible at the time?
• What warnings were raised but rejected?
• Which constraints made the chosen option reasonable?
• What happened after implementation?
• Does the lesson still apply under current conditions?

When those questions cannot be answered, the organization has stored information without preserving usable memory.

Organizational memory vs institutional memory

The terms overlap. Institutional memory usually emphasizes continuity across time: what remains available after people leave, leaders change, projects end, and structures are redesigned. Organizational memory is broader. It includes continuity, but also the mechanisms through which experience is interpreted, encoded, retrieved, challenged, and applied.

Organizational memory vs knowledge management

Knowledge management often focuses on capturing, organizing, and sharing information. Organizational memory asks a harder question: Can the system bring the right knowledge, with enough context and credibility, into a real decision before the organization repeats an avoidable mistake?

This is why organizational memory is a foundation of organizational intelligence. Intelligence does not come from possessing more information. It comes from recognizing patterns, preserving meaning, connecting perspectives, updating assumptions, and translating what is known into better collective action.

Where organizational memory lives

Organizational memory is distributed across multiple layers. It becomes fragile when too much of it is concentrated in only one.

1. Human memory

This includes expertise, judgment, intuition, technical understanding, lived experience, and tacit knowledge. Human memory is adaptable and rich in context, but it is vulnerable to turnover, overload, selective recall, and dependency on a few experts.

2. Relational memory

People often do not know the answer themselves; they know who is likely to know. These informal directories of expertise are sometimes described as transactive memory systems: shared understanding of who knows what, whose judgment is credible, and how specialized knowledge can be coordinated.^[4] Reorganizations can destroy this layer even when no formal data is deleted.

3. Procedural memory

Routines, checklists, standards, review practices, playbooks, and recurring workflows preserve lessons by embedding them into action. Procedural memory is powerful because it reduces reliance on conscious recall. It can also become dangerous when people continue following a routine after the conditions that justified it have disappeared.

4. Structural memory

Roles, governance, decision rights, incentives, escalation paths, system architecture, and organizational design all carry memory. A rule may preserve the lesson of a past failure even when nobody remembers the failure itself. Yet structures can also encode outdated assumptions and make yesterday’s solution feel permanent.

5. Narrative memory

Organizations remember through stories: what leaders say happened, why a transformation failed, which teams were blamed, what success supposedly proved, and which warnings became part of collective identity. Narrative memory preserves meaning, but it is highly vulnerable to political editing, simplification, and myth-making.

A healthy memory system connects all five layers. Human expertise is translated into shared understanding. Relationships make expertise reachable. Processes turn lessons into repeatable action. Structures reinforce the learning. Narratives preserve why the learning matters.

Learning is not the same as remembering

Organizational learning begins when experience changes what an organization knows. Research on organizational learning emphasizes that experience interacts with context to create knowledge.^[2] But creating knowledge is only the beginning. For learning to shape future performance, the organization must complete a longer chain.

The chain has seven distinct movements:

1. Experience: something happens in the organization or its environment.
2. Interpretation: people make sense of the event through their perspectives.
3. Decision: a choice is made on the basis of that interpretation.
4. Outcome: the decision produces intended and unintended consequences.
5. Encoding: the insight, context, evidence, and rationale are preserved.
6. Retrieval: relevant knowledge becomes available when a similar condition returns.
7. Reapplication: the knowledge changes a later decision, action, routine, or structure.

This explains why a company can conduct excellent retrospectives and still repeat itself. The event may generate insight, but the chain breaks later. Learning without encoding is lost. Memory without retrieval is inert. Retrieval without reapplication changes nothing.

Some organizations even simulate learning: they run workshops, publish lessons, and celebrate reflection while leaving decision rights, incentives, planning routines, and accountability unchanged. The organization appears reflective without becoming different.

Why organizations forget what they learn

Organizational forgetting rarely has one cause. It emerges when several weaknesses reinforce one another.

1. Knowledge remains attached to individuals

Experienced people carry pattern recognition, workarounds, relationship histories, and practical judgment that rarely fit into a handover template. When they leave, the organization loses not only facts but the connections that made those facts useful. The risk is greatest when expertise is admired but never translated into shared capability.

2. Leadership transitions erase decision context

New leaders often inherit decisions without the assumptions, constraints, rejected alternatives, and political trade-offs behind them. A previous choice can then look irrational, timid, or obsolete. The new team reverses it, only to rediscover the conditions that produced it.

3. Reorganizations break knowledge networks

Restructuring changes reporting lines, ownership boundaries, team identities, channels, and informal pathways. Documents may remain intact while the relational system that made them interpretable disappears. A reorganization can therefore create amnesia without deleting a single file.

4. Silos preserve incompatible fragments

Finance remembers the budget failure. Operations remembers the unrealistic deadline. Technology remembers unstable requirements. Employees remember ignored warnings. Leadership remembers weak ownership. Each group may be partly right, yet no one holds the whole pattern. The organization becomes siloed not only in work, but in memory.

5. Documentation loses the “why”

Many records preserve conclusions while deleting reasoning. “Engage stakeholders earlier” is not a reusable lesson unless the next team can understand which stakeholders, what signals were missed, why engagement failed, and what conditions made timing decisive. Decontextualized lessons become slogans.

6. Politics filters uncomfortable evidence

Organizations do not remember neutrally. Reviews can protect reputations, avoid conflict, and convert systemic failure into individual blame. Evidence that challenges powerful assumptions may be softened or excluded. This is one reason organizations can become unable to see reality and immune to feedback.

7. Technology scatters knowledge across disconnected systems

Relevant memory may be distributed across email, chat, project tools, shared drives, dashboards, ticketing systems, presentations, private notes, and abandoned repositories. The problem is not always absence. It is fragmentation, inconsistent language, unclear ownership, weak search, and low trust in what is found.

These causes interact. Turnover removes the people who understand the archive. Silos produce conflicting accounts. Weak documentation strips away context. Technology makes the remaining fragments hard to retrieve. Political pressure discourages correction. The system forgets even though pieces of memory still exist.

The Corporate Amnesia Loop™

Corporate amnesia is not a single moment when knowledge disappears. It is a recurring system pattern.

The loop usually unfolds like this:

1. A problem, incident, customer failure, strategic breakdown, or transformation setback emerges.
2. The organization introduces a temporary correction to restore stability.
3. Lessons are discussed or documented.
4. People move on, priorities shift, and the original context disappears.
5. The information becomes difficult to find, trust, interpret, or apply.
6. Similar conditions return in a different form.
7. The organization treats the recurring pattern as a new problem and repeats the mistake.

The loop is difficult to recognize because the repetition is rarely exact. The technology changes. The initiative has a new name. The symptoms appear in another function. A different leader owns the decision. The system compares surface details and misses the deeper structure.

This is why problems keep coming back at work. The visible issue is corrected, but the organization does not preserve and retrieve the causal pattern that produced it. The same feedback loop keeps generating familiar outcomes.

Why lessons-learned repositories fail

A lessons-learned repository can support organizational memory, but storage alone is not a memory system. Most repositories fail for predictable reasons.

Lessons are recorded after meaning has already decayed

When reflection occurs weeks or months after the event, people reconstruct rather than simply recall. They compress complexity, protect identities, and emphasize outcomes that became obvious only later. The record may look clean precisely because the original ambiguity has been removed.

The repository stores conclusions instead of decision logic

A future team needs more than the final answer. It needs the evidence available at the time, the uncertainties, the options considered, the trade-offs accepted, and the signals that later proved decisive. Without that chain of reasoning, the lesson cannot be transferred reliably.

Knowledge is organized around the past project, not the future problem

Archives often use project names, department folders, or internal acronyms. Future users search by risk, customer, capability, failure mode, decision type, or strategic condition. The knowledge exists, but the information architecture reflects how it was produced rather than how it will be needed.

Retrieval is separated from the flow of work

People are told that a repository exists, but no planning gate, design review, leadership transition, risk assessment, or investment decision requires them to consult it. Retrieval becomes optional extra work. Under pressure, optional memory disappears.

No one owns relevance and retirement

Knowledge becomes stale when nobody is responsible for connecting duplicates, validating claims, updating assumptions, resolving contradictions, or retiring obsolete material. The repository grows while trust declines.

A repository stores knowledge. An organizational memory system returns relevant knowledge to the organization at the moment it can still change a decision.

How silos create competing organizational memories

An organization does not experience one event in one way. Different functions see different signals, carry different risks, and use different definitions of success.

Consider a failed transformation:

• Finance remembers that the budget was exceeded, but may forget market pressure and scope changes.
• Operations remembers disruption, but may forget unrealistic timelines and cross-functional dependencies.
• Technology remembers unstable requirements, but may forget legacy constraints and resource limits.
• Sales and clients remember late communication, but may forget unclear commitments and changing demand.
• HR and employees remember overload, but may forget role ambiguity and capability gaps.
• Leadership remembers weak ownership, but may forget conflicting priorities and unresolved trade-offs.

Each memory contains evidence. The failure begins when one partial account becomes the official story. Competing narratives then prevent shared learning, teams protect their version of the truth, and contradictory solutions are proposed.

This is a sensemaking problem. The organization needs a process for comparing interpretations, locating missing context, testing causal claims, and constructing a shared account without forcing false agreement. It also depends on collective intelligence: the ability to combine distributed knowledge into a better picture than any function can hold alone.

When that integration works, the organization begins to function as a more coherent collective mind. It does not erase difference. It connects difference into a more reliable memory.

Why leadership transitions reset organizational history

Leadership transitions are necessary. They can bring new energy, challenge complacency, and free an organization from inherited assumptions. They can also trigger institutional amnesia.

New leaders often receive summaries rather than decision histories. They see what exists, but not the alternatives that were rejected. They hear what failed, but not whether the idea was flawed, the timing was wrong, the system was unprepared, or implementation contradicted the design. They inherit policies without the incidents that created them.

This produces four common errors:

1. Reversal without understanding: a previous decision is removed before its underlying constraint is examined.
2. Renaming without learning: an old initiative returns with new language and the same structural weaknesses.
3. Personalization of history: a systemic outcome is attributed to the personality or competence of the previous leader.
4. Context-free imitation: a practice imported from another organization is treated as superior without examining the local conditions.

A mature transition should therefore preserve more than status and metrics. It should make visible the decision landscape: assumptions, dependencies, unresolved tensions, prior experiments, dissenting evidence, and the conditions under which current arrangements should be reconsidered.

Not all organizational forgetting is harmful

A strong memory system does not preserve everything forever. That would turn organizational memory into organizational inertia.

Research on organizational forgetting distinguishes accidental loss from deliberate removal and recognizes that forgetting can be harmful or useful.^[3] The central question is not whether the organization forgets. It is whether it can distinguish knowledge that remains valuable from knowledge that has become misleading.

Destructive forgetting	Adaptive forgetting
Losing useful decision context	Retiring assumptions disproved by new evidence
Repeating a known failure	Abandoning routines that no longer fit reality
Depending on departing experts	Replacing superseded technical knowledge
Erasing dissent or uncomfortable evidence	Releasing beliefs after transparent review
Allowing archives to decay silently	Versioning, updating, and deliberately retiring content

Organizations frequently remember the behavior but forget the purpose. A control created after a crisis survives for years, while nobody remembers the risk it was meant to reduce. A reporting requirement remains after the decision it supported has disappeared. A successful operating model becomes sacred even as the environment changes.

Adaptive organizational memory therefore needs two capacities at once: continuity and revision. It must resist accidental decay while remaining open to challenge.

Can AI become organizational memory?

AI can significantly improve parts of organizational memory. It can search large collections, summarize related material, connect recurring themes, surface previous decisions, and reduce the effort required to retrieve distributed knowledge.

Research on organizational memory information systems has long treated technology as one component of a broader capability connected to organizational learning and decision-making—not as a substitute for those processes.^[5]

But AI does not automatically create memory. It operates on what the organization has preserved and made accessible. It cannot reliably reconstruct:

• knowledge that was never captured;
• tacit judgment that remained inside a person’s experience;
• political pressures that shaped the official account;
• informal relationships that made coordination possible;
• why evidence was ignored or excluded;
• which assumptions were credible at the time;
• whether an old lesson still applies under new conditions.

AI can also amplify weak memory. If the archive contains outdated policies, duplicated interpretations, biased incident reviews, and decontextualized conclusions, faster retrieval may spread those weaknesses more efficiently.

The practical principle is simple: AI can accelerate retrieval, but it cannot replace the organizational work of deciding what deserves to be captured, contextualized, connected, trusted, challenged, reapplied, or retired.

The Organizational Memory Maturity Model™

Organizations differ not only in how much knowledge they hold, but in how reliably they turn experience into future capability.

Stage 1: Reactive — forget quickly

Experience is discarded after the immediate crisis. Learning depends on individual memory, urgent correction, and informal explanation. The organization repeatedly pays to rediscover what it once knew.

Stage 2: Aware — record selectively

Some lessons are documented, but quality and participation vary. Knowledge remains difficult to find, and important experience is captured only when a motivated person creates the record.

Stage 3: Systematic — capture consistently

Important decisions, outcomes, and lessons are preserved in a structured way. The central risk is information without application: the organization builds an archive but does not yet make memory part of decision flow.

Stage 4: Integrated — apply broadly

Knowledge is shared across teams, connected to relevant work, and used to improve decisions. Learning becomes visible. Adoption may still be uneven, and some areas remain dependent on local habits or leaders.

Stage 5: Institutionalized — evolve continuously

Learning is embedded in governance, culture, systems, strategy, and decision-making. The organization not only preserves knowledge; it challenges and updates it. The risk at this stage is complacency—believing the memory system is complete.

Maturity is not a certification. Different functions may occupy different stages, and the same organization may regress during rapid growth, restructuring, acquisition, or leadership change.

Retention is not enough: the Memory Reliability Matrix™

Two dimensions determine whether organizational memory is usable: retention strength and retrieval strength.

Memory gap: weak retention, weak retrieval

Critical insight is neither preserved nor easy to find. Repeated failure, rework, and dependency on individual memory are common. The priority is foundational: capture, organize, and connect what matters.

Lost opportunity: weak retention, strong retrieval capability

The organization may have excellent search and collaboration tools, but the decisive knowledge was never captured. Technology can locate the archive; it cannot retrieve what the system failed to preserve.

Untapped potential: strong retention, weak retrieval

Knowledge exists, but people cannot find, trust, or apply it in time. This is the familiar condition of the well-documented organization that still makes slow, inconsistent decisions.

Reliable advantage: strong retention, strong retrieval

Lessons are captured with context, connected to related decisions, easy to find, and routinely used. The priority is to sustain quality, challenge stale knowledge, and continue evolving the system.

The hidden inhibitors of organizational memory

Organizations often try to improve memory by buying tools or introducing templates. Those interventions fail when deeper system conditions block learning.

Seven inhibitors are especially destructive:

1. Lack of time and space: constant firefighting leaves no room to capture or reflect.
2. Fear of blame: people hide mistakes, sugarcoat problems, and avoid evidence that could create consequences.
3. Siloed thinking and structures: knowledge remains local and duplication becomes normal.
4. Poor information architecture: content is scattered, inconsistently named, outdated, or difficult to search.
5. Lack of context and rationale: decisions are preserved without the reasoning that made them intelligible.
6. Low trust in documented knowledge: people expect records to be incomplete or wrong, so they bypass the system.
7. No accountability or ownership: nobody curates, validates, connects, updates, or retires organizational knowledge.

These inhibitors explain why a technically competent solution can remain unused. The memory system depends on psychological safety, clear ownership, simple and trusted tools, open dialogue, shared priorities, and visible leadership commitment. Without those enablers, knowledge practices become administrative theater.

Organizational Memory Diagnostic™

Score each statement from 0 to 5: 0 means “not true at all,” and 5 means “consistently true across the organization.” Use evidence, not aspiration.

Retention

1. Critical knowledge survives the departure of key people.
2. Important decisions are recorded with evidence, assumptions, rationale, and trade-offs.
3. Lessons are captured while context is still fresh.

Connection

4. Teams can discover relevant experience from other functions or projects.
5. Related decisions, outcomes, risks, and lessons are linked rather than stored as isolated files.
6. Conflicting interpretations can be compared without forcing premature agreement.

Retrieval

7. People can find relevant knowledge when a similar condition appears.
8. Retrieval is embedded in planning, review, transition, and decision workflows.
9. Users can determine whether retrieved knowledge is current and trustworthy.

Challenge

10. Outdated lessons and assumptions can be questioned safely.
11. Failed predictions and rejected evidence are used to update the organizational model.
12. Knowledge is versioned, validated, and deliberately retired when it no longer applies.

Reapplication

13. Leaders can identify examples where previous learning changed a later decision.
14. Recurring failures are tracked across projects, functions, and leadership periods.
15. Learning changes structures, incentives, governance, priorities, or resource allocation—not only documents.

Total score	Memory state	Immediate priority
0–15	Reactive	Protect critical knowledge and begin capturing context.
16–30	Aware	Create consistent ownership and minimum capture standards.
31–45	Systematic	Connect stored knowledge to retrieval and decision workflows.
46–60	Integrated	Expand cross-functional use and improve challenge mechanisms.
61–75	Institutionalized	Sustain quality, prevent complacency, and keep evolving.

The score is less important than the pattern. A company may retain knowledge well but retrieve it poorly. It may share extensively but preserve little context. It may have advanced technology and weak psychological safety. Diagnose the specific break in the chain before selecting the intervention.

How to build an Organizational Memory Operating System™

The solution is not to preserve more information indiscriminately. It is to design a reliable operating system that converts experience into reusable organizational capability.

1. Capture what matters

Capture events, decisions, evidence, lessons, outcomes, and dissent while the situation is still alive. Do not attempt to document everything. Focus on knowledge that could change future risk, strategy, design, customer outcomes, or performance.

Useful capture answers: What happened? What surprised us? What did we decide? Which evidence mattered? What remains uncertain? What should a future team know before facing a similar condition?

2. Contextualize the knowledge

Preserve meaning, not only content. Record why the decision made sense, which assumptions were active, what trade-offs were accepted, which alternatives were rejected, and what constraints shaped the outcome.

Context prevents future leaders from treating every past choice as either sacred wisdom or obvious incompetence.

3. Connect related memory

Link knowledge to related decisions, risks, customers, systems, capabilities, projects, outcomes, and themes. Connect multiple perspectives on the same event. Make expertise directories visible so that people can discover not only documents, but credible human sources.

4. Retrieve in the flow of work

Bring memory into the moments where it can change action: investment reviews, transformation design, incident response, strategy refreshes, leadership transitions, architecture decisions, risk reviews, and major customer commitments.

Do not expect employees to remember to search an archive. Design prompts, checkpoints, and tools that surface relevant knowledge automatically or make consultation a normal part of the workflow.

5. Challenge what the organization remembers

Memory can preserve error as easily as wisdom. Test assumptions against current evidence. Compare predicted outcomes with actual outcomes. Invite dissenting interpretations. Ask whether the lesson remains valid, partially valid, or obsolete.

This stage protects the organization from turning experience into dogma.

6. Reapply, update, or retire

Use valid knowledge to improve decisions, structures, routines, governance, incentives, and resource allocation. Update lessons when conditions change. Retire knowledge deliberately when it no longer reflects reality, while preserving enough history to explain why it was retired.

Build the enablers around the process

The operating system depends on six enablers:

• Psychological safety: people can disclose mistakes, uncertainty, and dissent without predictable punishment.
• Ownership and roles: responsibility for capture, curation, validation, retrieval, and retirement is explicit.
• Simple and trusted systems: tools are usable, integrated, and credible.
• Open dialogue and feedback: interpretations can be compared and corrected.
• Clear purpose and priorities: people know what knowledge matters and why it is worth preserving.
• Leadership commitment: leaders model learning, consult memory, and invest in the system.

This is where System Shaping becomes useful. Instead of telling employees to “share knowledge better,” System Shaping examines the conditions that produce remembering or forgetting: incentives, authority, workflows, boundaries, technology, meaning, and feedback. The goal is not to demand better behavior inside the same environment. It is to shape an environment in which memory becomes normal, useful, and self-reinforcing.

From organizational memory to organizational intelligence

An organization does not become intelligent by accumulating documents. It becomes intelligent when it can preserve experience, recover context, combine partial perspectives, challenge outdated assumptions, and apply relevant knowledge under changing conditions.

The larger capability chain is:

If an organization cannot perceive reality, it learns from distortion. If it cannot make sense of conflicting signals, it stores fragmented interpretations. If it cannot preserve and retrieve learning, intelligence resets with every turnover or reorganization. If it cannot challenge memory, it becomes trapped by the past. If it cannot apply memory, it loses the ability to adapt.

This connects organizational memory directly to organizational adaptability. Adaptation is not merely rapid response. It is the ability to use history without being imprisoned by it.

An organization does not truly learn when insight is produced. It learns when that insight survives time, remains connected to context, and changes what the system does next.

Frequently asked questions about organizational memory

What is organizational memory?

Organizational memory is the knowledge, experience, reasoning, routines, relationships, and shared interpretations that allow an organization to use its past in present decisions. It lives in people, networks, processes, structures, technologies, and narratives—not only in documents or databases.

Why do organizations repeat the same mistakes?

Organizations repeat mistakes when learning is not preserved with enough context, cannot be retrieved when similar conditions return, or does not change future decisions. Turnover, silos, leadership transitions, weak documentation, political filtering, and fragmented technology often reinforce this failure.

What is corporate amnesia?

Corporate amnesia is the loss of usable organizational knowledge. The information may be deleted, but it may also remain somewhere while becoming inaccessible, untrusted, decontextualized, or disconnected from the people and workflows that need it.

What is the difference between organizational memory and knowledge management?

Knowledge management usually focuses on capturing, organizing, and sharing knowledge. Organizational memory includes those activities but emphasizes continuity, retrieval, credibility, context, challenge, and reapplication. A knowledge platform can store information without creating a reliable memory capability.

Where is organizational knowledge stored?

Organizational knowledge is stored in human expertise, relationships, routines, systems, policies, governance, archives, stories, decision rules, and the design of work. Strong memory connects these forms rather than relying on one repository or a few experienced employees.

How can companies preserve institutional knowledge when employees leave?

Companies should identify critical knowledge early, capture decisions and rationale while work is active, map expertise relationships, create overlapping ownership, integrate retrieval into workflows, and update documentation through real use. A handover at the moment of departure is usually too late.

Why do lessons-learned repositories fail?

They fail when lessons are generic, detached from context, organized around old projects, difficult to search, disconnected from decisions, or left without ownership. The repository may contain information but still fail to return relevant, trusted knowledge at the moment of need.

Can AI preserve organizational memory?

AI can improve search, summarization, pattern detection, and retrieval. It cannot recover knowledge that was never captured or reliably reconstruct political context, tacit judgment, hidden assumptions, and informal relationships. AI strengthens organizational memory only when the underlying knowledge system is trustworthy.

Can organizational memory become harmful?

Yes. Organizations can preserve obsolete routines, outdated assumptions, biased narratives, and lessons that no longer fit reality. Healthy memory includes deliberate challenge, versioning, updating, and retirement—not permanent preservation of everything.

How do you build an organizational memory system?

Build a repeatable process to capture important experience, preserve context, connect related knowledge, retrieve it in the flow of work, challenge its validity, and reapply or retire it. Support the process with psychological safety, clear ownership, trusted tools, open dialogue, shared priorities, and leadership commitment.

Research foundation

The frameworks in this article are original Paradigm Red models built on established research streams in organizational memory, organizational learning, organizational forgetting, and transactive memory systems.

1. James P. Walsh and Gerardo Rivera Ungson, “Organizational Memory,” Academy of Management Review, 1991.
2. Linda Argote and Ella Miron-Spektor, “Organizational Learning: From Experience to Knowledge,” Organization Science, 2011.
3. Pablo Martin de Holan and Nelson Phillips, “Remembrance of Things Past? The Dynamics of Organizational Forgetting,” Management Science, 2004.
4. Kyle Lewis, “Measuring Transactive Memory Systems in the Field,” Journal of Applied Psychology, 2003.
5. Eric W. Stein and Vladimir Zwass, “Actualizing Organizational Memory with Information Systems,” Information Systems Research, 1995.

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